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### Research Papers: Flows in Complex Systems

J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071101-071101-16. doi:10.1115/1.4039249.

Hole-pattern annular gas seals have two distinct flow regions: an annular jet-flow region between the rotor and stator, and cylindrical indentions in the stator that serve as cavities where flow recirculation occurs. As the working fluid enters the cavities and recirculates, its kinetic energy is reduced, resulting in a reduction of leakage flow rate through the seal. The geometry of the cylindrical cavities has a significant effect on the overall performance of the seal. In this study, the effects of elliptical shape hole pattern geometry on the leakage and dynamic response performance of an industry-relevant hole-pattern seal design are investigated using a combination of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), hybrid bulk flow-CFD analysis, and design of experiments (DOEs) technique. The design space was defined by varying the values of five geometrical characteristics: the major and minor radius of hole, the angle between the major axis and the axis of the seal, the spacing between holes along the seal axis, and hole spacing in the circumferential direction. This detailed analysis allowed for a greater understanding of the interaction effects from varying all of these design parameters together as opposed to studying them one variable at a time. Response maps generated from the calculated results demonstrate the effects of each design parameter on seal leakage as well as the co-dependence between the design parameters. The data from this analysis were also used to generate linear regression models that demonstrate how these parameters affect the leakage rate and the dynamic coefficients, including the effective damping.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071102-071102-10. doi:10.1115/1.4039258.

The transient behaviors of a prototype pump turbine are very important to the safe operation of a pumped-storage power plant. This is because the water hammer pressure during transient events affects the pressure surges in the spiral case (SC) and the draft tube (DT). In addition, the transient pressure pulsations in the vaneless space (VL) are important in the evaluation of the life of the runner. Although several detailed studies have been conducted on the water hammer pressure of a hydropower plant, very few have considered the transient pressure pulsations that occur in the pump turbine. The objective of the present study was to determine the characteristics of the transient pressure pulsations of a 300-MW prototype Francis pump turbine during load rejection and power failure. For this purpose, the frequency features in the steady-state were first analyzed using fast Fourier transform. A Savitzky–Golay filter was then used to extract the water hammer pressure and pulsating pressure from the acquired raw pressure signals. Further, a one-dimensional (1D) method of characteristics (MOC) mathematical model of the pump-turbine was established and used to simulate the transient variations of the flow discharge during transient events, to enable the division of the transient operation conditions into several domains. Finally, the characteristics of the transient pressure pulsations in the SC, vaneless space, and DT were investigated in the time and frequency domains. This paper also discusses the causes of the pressure pulsations that occur under different modes of operation of a pump turbine.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071103-071103-11. doi:10.1115/1.4039247.

Studies were made to understand the flow features around an open cavity at Mach 2.0 corresponding to Re = 0.55 × 106 based on the cavity depth. Experiments were carried out using a blowdown type supersonic wind tunnel having a test section size of 50 mm × 100 mm. Oil flow and schlieren flow visualization were made to understand the steady flow features inside the cavity. Unsteady pressures were measured at several locations to obtain the fluctuating flow field details and the pressure spectrum. Impinging wall modifications of the cavity were made with an objective to reduce the Rossiter's mode frequencies and its amplitude. Partial ramping of the impinging wall with variations in height and angles were made. With adoption of a specific combination of the impinging wall height and angle, the first two modes of the multiple tonal characteristics could be reduced significantly. The present adopted method could result in 74% reduction of root-mean-square (RMS) pressure and a noise reduction of 11 dB.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071104-071104-9. doi:10.1115/1.4039232.

The ground effect on the aerodynamic loading and leading-edge vortex (LEV) flow generated by a slender delta wing was investigated experimentally. Both the lift and drag forces were found to increase with reducing ground distance (up to 50% of the wing chord). The lift increment was also found to be the greatest at low angles of attack α and decreased rapidly with increasing ground distance and α. The ground effect-caused earlier wing stall was also accompanied by a strengthened LEV with an increased rotational speed and size compared to the baseline wing. The smaller the ground distance, the stronger the LEV and the earlier vortex breakdown became. Meanwhile, the vortex trajectory was also found to be located further inboard and above the delta wing in ground effect compared to its baseline-wing counterpart. Finally, for wing-in-ground effect (WIG) craft with delta-wing planform the most effective in-ground-effect flight should be kept within 10% of the wing chord.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster

### Research Papers: Fundamental Issues and Canonical Flows

J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071201-071201-12. doi:10.1115/1.4039233.

The shear layer development for a NACA 0025 airfoil at a low Reynolds number was investigated experimentally and numerically using large eddy simulation (LES). Two angles of attack (AOAs) were considered: 5 deg and 12 deg. Experiments and numerics confirm that two flow regimes are present. The first regime, present for an angle-of-attack of 5 deg, exhibits boundary layer reattachment with formation of a laminar separation bubble. The second regime consists of boundary layer separation without reattachment. Linear stability analysis (LSA) of mean velocity profiles is shown to provide adequate agreement between measured and computed growth rates. The stability equations exhibit significant sensitivity to variations in the base flow. This highlights that caution must be applied when experimental or computational uncertainties are present, particularly when performing comparisons. LSA suggests that the first regime is characterized by high frequency instabilities with low spatial growth, whereas the second regime experiences low frequency instabilities with more rapid growth. Spectral analysis confirms the dominance of a central frequency in the laminar separation region of the shear layer, and the importance of nonlinear interactions with harmonics in the transition process.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071202-071202-10. doi:10.1115/1.4039236.

The aerodynamic properties and flowfield of a NACA 0015 airfoil over a wavy ground were investigated experimentally via surface pressure and particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements. Flat-surface results were also obtained to be served as a comparison. For the wavy ground, there exhibited a cyclic variation in the sectional lift coefficient Cl over an entire wavelength. The maximum Cl observed at the wave peak (produced by the wavy ground-induced RAM pressure) and minimum Cl occurred at the wave valley (resulting from the unusual suction pressure developed on the airfoil's lower surface due to the converging-diverging flow passage developed underneath it) reduced with increasing ground distance. By contrast, the pitching-moment coefficient showed an opposite trend to the variation in Cl and had an almost all-negative value. Meanwhile, two peak values in the drag coefficient over each wavelength were observed. The wavy ground effect-produced gains in the mean Cl and lift-to-drag ratio were at the expense of longitudinal stability. Additional measurements considering different wavelengths and amplitudes are needed to further quantify the impact of wavy ground on wing-in-ground effect (WIG) airfoils and wings.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071203-071203-7. doi:10.1115/1.4039159.

Flow over a transitional-type cavity in microchannels is studied using a microparticle image velocimetry system (μPIV) and commercially available computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software in laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow regimes. According to experimental results, in the transitional-type cavity (L/h1 = 10) and under laminar flow in the channel, the recirculation zone behind the backward-facing step stretches linearly with $ReDh$ until the reattachment point reaches the middle of the cavity at xr/L = (0.5 to 0.6). With further increase in $ReDh$, the forward-facing step lifts the reattaching flow from the bottom of the cavity and stagnant recirculation flow fills the entire space of the cavity. Flow reattachment to the bottom of the cavity is again observed only after transition to the turbulent flow regime in the channel. Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations and large eddy simulation (LES) results revealed changes in vortex topology, with the flow regime changing from laminar to turbulent. During the turbulent flow regime in the recirculation zone, periodically recurring vortex systems are formed. Experimental and computational results have a good qualitative agreement regarding the changes in the flow topology. However, the results of numerical simulations based on RANS equations and the Reynolds-stress-baseline turbulence model (RSM-BSL), show that computed reattachment length values overestimate the experimentally obtained values. The RSM-BSL model underestimates the turbulent kinetic energy intensity, generated by flow separation phenomena, on the stage of transitional flow regime.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071204-071204-23. doi:10.1115/1.4039259.

The maxima of Reynolds shear stress and turbulent burst mean period time are crucial points in the intermediate region (termed as mesolayer) for large Reynolds numbers. The three layers (inner, meso, and outer) in a turbulent boundary layer have been analyzed from open equations of turbulent motion, independent of any closure model like eddy viscosity or mixing length, etc. Little above (or below not considered here) the critical point, the matching of mesolayer predicts the log law velocity, peak of Reynolds shear stress domain, and turbulent burst time period. The instantaneous velocity vector after subtraction of mean velocity vector yields the velocity fluctuation vector, also governed by log law. The static pressure fluctuation $p′$ also predicts log laws in the inner, outer, and mesolayer. The relationship between $u′/Ue$ with u/Ue from structure of turbulent boundary layer is presented in inner, meso, and outer layers. The turbulent bursting time period has been shown to scale with the mesolayer time scale; and Taylor micro time scale; both have been shown to be equivalent in the mesolayer. The shape factor in a turbulent boundary layer shows linear behavior with nondimensional mesolayer length scale. It is shown that the Prandtl transposition (PT) theorem connects the velocity of normal coordinate y with s offset to y + a, then the turbulent velocity profile vector and pressure fluctuation log laws are altered; but skin friction log law, based on outer velocity Ue, remains independent of a the offset of origin. But if skin friction log law is based on bulk average velocity Ub, then skin friction log law depends on a, the offset of origin. These predictions are supported by experimental and direct numerical simulation (DNS) data.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071205-071205-14. doi:10.1115/1.4039117.

Fluid distributors are widely used in various industrial and ventilation applications. For the appropriate design of such distributors, the discharge coefficient has to be known to predict the energy and fluid distribution performance. Despite the vast amount of experimental data published, no generally applicable equations are available. Therefore, a new equation is presented for sharp-edged circular side outlets, which can be widely used for calculating the discharge coefficient. The equation is developed by regression with nonlinear least squares combined with genetic algorithm on experimental data available in the literature. The equation covers a wider range than the others presented in the literature.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster

### Research Papers: Multiphase Flows

J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071301-071301-12. doi:10.1115/1.4039234.

A computational study was carried out to investigate the effects of internal geometry changes on the likelihood of solids buildup within, and the efficiency of, an industrial dust collector. Combustible solids held up in the unit pose a safety risk. The dust collector serves multiple functions, so the design requires a delicate balance. Particles should be separated from the incoming mixture and collected in the bottom of the unit. This particulate material should freely flow into a high-speed ejector (Mach 0.4) underneath. Gas must also flow freely to the top outlet, but sufficient gas must flow down to the ejector so that its motive gas augments the transport of particles back to the reactor (recirculation). Computational design evaluations included: (1) rod spacing, (2) ledge removal, and (3) rod cover plates. Testing on particle size distribution and density was carried out in-house to provide inputs to the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. Rod spacing reduction had a mixed effect on flow distribution. Plates were found to induce a negative effect on recirculation and a mixed effect on combustible solids accumulation. Removal of the ledge, however, offered slightly more recirculation along with completely alleviating stagnant solids accumulation. It is shown that, without consideration of detailed fluid physics, general separator design principals might be misguiding.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster

### Research Papers: Techniques and Procedures

J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071401-071401-11. doi:10.1115/1.4039256.

The setup of inlet conditions for a large eddy simulation (LES) is a complex and important problem. Normally, there are two methods to generate the inlet conditions for LES, i.e., synthesized turbulence methods and precursor simulation methods. This study presents a new method for determining inlet boundary conditions of LES using particle image velocimetry (PIV). LES shows sensitivity to inlet boundary conditions in the developing region, and this effect can even extend into the fully developed region of the flow. Two kinds of boundary conditions generated from PIV data, i.e., steady spatial distributed inlet (SSDI) and unsteady spatial distributed inlet (USDI), are studied. PIV provides valuable field measurement, but special care is needed to estimate turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation rate for SSDI. Correlation coefficients are used to analyze the autocorrelation of the PIV data. Different boundary conditions have different influences on LES, and their advantages and disadvantages for turbulence prediction and static pressure prediction are discussed in the paper. Two kinds of LES with different subgrid turbulence models are evaluated: namely dynamic Smagorinsky–Lilly model (Lilly model) and wall modeled large eddy simulation (WMLES model). The performances of these models for flow prediction in a square duct are presented. Furthermore, the LES results are compared with PIV measurement results and Reynolds-stress model (RSM) results at a downstream location for validation.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071402-071402-7. doi:10.1115/1.4039248.

In this study, a second-order accurate Godunov-type finite volume method is used for the solution of the two-dimensional (2D) water hammer problem. The numerical scheme applied here is well balanced and is able to treat the unsteady friction terms, together with the convective terms, within the differences between fluxes of neighboring computational cells. In order to consider the effect of unsteady friction terms during the water hammer process, $k−ε$ and $k−ω$ turbulence models are employed. The performance of the proposed method with the choice of different turbulence models is evaluated using experimental data obtained from one low and one high Reynolds-number turbulent test cases. In addition to velocity and pressure distributions, the turbulence characteristics of each variant of the model, including eddy viscosity, dissipation rate, and turbulent kinetic energy during the water hammer process are fully analyzed. It is found that the inclusion of the convective inertia terms leads to more accurate pressure profiles. The results also show that using a relatively high Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) number close to unity, the introduced numerical solver with both choices of turbulence models provides reasonable and acceptable predictions for the studied flows.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster
J. Fluids Eng. 2018;140(7):071403-071403-7. doi:10.1115/1.4039250.

For low-flow and high-head applications, pump types such as progressive cavity or gear pumps are often used. However, centrifugal pumps are much more robust and wear resistant, and are beneficial if they can handle the rated head and flows. By challenging the limitations of low specific speed (Nq), centrifugal pumps can be made to handle a combination of low flow and high head, which previously required other pump types. Conventional centrifugal pumps have specific speed down to 10, while in this paper a design with specific speed of 4.8 is presented. The paper describes several iterative steps in the design process of the low Nq pump. These iterations were done one physical pumps, which were successively tested in a test rig. Motivation for each step is explained theoretically and followed up by discussion of the measured results. Four different geometries of the pump were tested, all of them manufactured by rapid prototyping in nylon material. A substantial question is how low the specific speed of a centrifugal pump can be. Limitations of low Nq pumps are discussed and new findings are related to volute cavitation. In addition, limitations due to disk friction, volute losses, leakage flow, and pump stability are discussed and show to limit the design space for the pump designer.

Commentary by Dr. Valentin Fuster